A trade term requiring the seller to arrange for the carriage of goods by sea to a port of destination, and provide the buyer with the documents necessary to obtain the goods from the carrier. Under CFR, the seller does not have to procure marine insurance against the risk of loss or damage to the goods during transit. |||Contracts involving international transportation often contain abbreviated trade terms that describe matters such as the time and place of delivery, payment when the risk of loss shifts from the seller to the buyer, and who pays the costs of freight and insurance. The most commonly known trade terms are Incoterms, which are published by the International Chamber of Commerce (ICC). These are often identical in form to domestic terms (such as the American Uniform Commercial Code), but have different meanings. As a result, parties to a contract must expressly indicate the governing law of their terms. It's important to realize that because this is a legal term, its exact definition is much more complicated and differs by country. It is suggested that you contact an international trade lawyer before using any trade term.
简介 是银行以贴现购得的没有到期的票据向其他商业银行所作的票据转让。 是指商业银行在资金临时不足时,将已经贴现但仍未到期的票据,交给其他商业银行或贴现机构给予贴现,以取得资金融通. . (请先看图!!!)对于银行B来说,对其所持有的票据也有两种处理方式,一种是等待票面到期日向承兑人发出托收收回款项,另一种是将票据转卖给其他银行(银行C)从而立即获得资金,这后一种处理方式对银行B来说就是转贴现卖出,对银行C来说就是转贴现买入。 跟贴现一样,转贴现中票据的持有人也需要向买入行支付一定的利息。 如果买入银行(银行C)是中国人民银行的分支机构,则称为再贴现,以区分于商业银行之间的转贴现。 如果银行B只将票据转卖给银行C一段时间,并约定在票面到期日之前的某个日期重新将票据买回,这种方式叫回购式转贴现,对银行B来说,称为卖出回购式转贴现(有时简称正回购或卖出回购),对银行C来说称为买入返售式转贴现(有时简称买入反售或逆回购)。如果银行B将票据转卖给银行C之后,票据的所有权归银行C,银行B不再买回,这种转贴现对银行B来说叫卖断式转贴现,对银行C来说叫买断式转贴现。
A way of forex trading that provides immediate access to the interbank market. The interbank market is where foreign currencies are traded. This is different than trading through the dealing desks that are found in many banks and financial institutions. By using a dealing desk, a forex broker who is registered as a Futures Commission Merchant (FCM) and Retail Foreign Exchange Dealer (RFED) can offset trades. If a no dealing desk system is used, positions are automatically offset and then transmitted directly to the interbank. |||Forex brokers who use this system work directly with market liquidity providers. When trading through a no dealing desk, instead of dealing with one liquidity provider, an investor is dealing with numerous providers in order to get the most competitive bid and ask prices. An investor using this method has access to instantly executable rates.
概述 子博弈精炼纳什均衡的创立者. ——1994年诺贝尔经济学奖获奖者、莱茵哈德·泽尔腾(Reinhard Selten). 泽尔腾则在60年代中期将纳什均衡概念引入动态分析。在1965年发表《需求减少条件下寡头垄断模型的对策论描述》一文,提出了“子博弈精炼纳什均衡”的概念,又称“子对策完美纳什均衡”。这一研究对纳什均衡进行了第一次改进,选择了更具说服力的均衡点。海萨尼在60年代末把不完全信息引入博弈分析。 将纳什均衡中包含的不可置信的威胁策略剔除出去。它要求参与者的决策在任何时点上都是最优的,决策者要“随机应变”,“向前看”,而不是固守旧略。 由于剔除了不可置信的威胁,在许多情况下,精炼纳什均衡也就缩小了纳什均衡的个数。这一点对预测分析是非常有意义的。 用动态博弈理论来讨论实际究竟发生哪个纳什均衡。 给定“历史”,每一个行动选择开始至博弈结束构成了一个博弈,称为“子博弈”。 只有当参与人的策略在每一个子博弈中都构成纳什均衡叫做精炼纳什均衡。或者说,组成精炼纳什均衡的策略必须在每一个子博弈中都是最优的。 定义子博弈:一个扩展式表示博弈的子博弈G是由一个单结信息集x开始的与所有该决策结的后续结(包括终点结)组成的能自成一个博弈的原博弈的一部分。 对于扩展式博弈的策略组合S*=(S1*,…,Si*,…,Sn*) ,如果它是原博弈的纳什均衡;它在每一个子博弈上也都构成纳什均衡,则它是一个子博弈精炼纳什均衡。 博弈论专家常常使用“序惯理性”(Sequential rationality):指不论过去发生了什么,参与人应该在博弈的每个时点上最优化自己的策略。子博弈精练纳什均衡所要求的正是参与人应该是序惯理性的。对于有限完美信息博弈,逆向归纳法是求解子博弈精炼纳什均衡的最简便的方法。因为有限完美信息博弈的每一个决策结都开始一个子博弈。求解方法: 最后一个结点上的子博弈(纳什均衡)→倒数第二个(纳什均衡) → ······ → 初始结点上的子博弈(纳什均衡)。 完全信息动态博弈动态是世间万物的基本特征。完全信息静态博弈只是一种独特的理想状态。在现实中,当后一个参与人行动时,自然会根据前者的选择而调整自己的选择,而前者也会理性地预期到这一点,所以不可能不考虑自己的选择对他人的影响。1965年,泽尔腾通过对动态博弈的分析,提出了“子博弈精炼纳什均衡”的概念,它要求任何参与人在任何时间、地点的决策都是最优的,决策者应该随机应变,而不是固守前谋。这就推导出子博弈的概念。当参与人的战略在每一个子博弈中都构成纳什均衡时,则形成“子博弈精炼纳什均衡”。也就是说,组成“子博弈精炼纳什均衡”的战略必须在每一个子博弈中都是最优的。 动态博弈的纳什均衡的意义子博弈精炼纳什均衡用于区分动态博弈中的"合理纳什均衡"与"不合理纳什均衡",将纳什均衡中包含有不可置信威胁策略的均衡剔除出去,就是说,使最后的均衡中不再包含有不可置信威胁策略的存在。 求解法逆向归纳法(Backward Induction)是求解子博弈精炼纳什均衡的最简便方法。在求解子博弈精炼纳什均衡时,从最后一个子博弈开始逆推上去,这就是逆向归纳法。所以逆向归纳法就是从动态博弈的最后一个阶段或最后一个子博弈开始,逐步向前倒推以求解动态博弈均衡的方法。 用逆向归纳法求解子博弈精炼纳什均衡;承诺行动与子博弈精炼纳什均衡;逆向归纳法与子博弈精炼均衡存在的问题。 应用举例在表1描述的博弈模型中,每一次微观主体间的博弈均可看作一个子博弈。子博弈精炼纳什均衡包含两层含义: (1)它是原博弈的纳什均衡; (2)它在每一个子博弈上给出纳什均衡。 子博弈精炼纳什均衡就是要剔除那些只在特定情况下是合理的,而在其他情况下并不合理的行动规则。 子博弈精炼纳什均衡 在表1中,a代表只有一个微观主体创新时所带来的收益,c代表该微观主体创新所需付出的成本。当只有一个微观主体进行创新时将会获得创新带来的全部收益(a-c),而当两个主体同时创新时,收益将会减半(a-c)/2。一般情况下“a-c>0”,则很明显在这个博弈过程中,(创新,创新)是一个纳什均衡,更严格地说,是一个严格优势策略均衡。依此类推,可以得出,在每一次新的金融规制后,(创新,创新)这个策略都将是至下次新规制出现前的子博弈的纳什均衡。因此,在利润的驱动下,微观主体都会选择创新这样一个策略。 举例分析在市场进入博弈中,在给定企业B已经进入的情况下,在位者的“斗争”,“高价”策略已不再是最优的,这种“斗争”是不可置信的威胁,因为斗争的结果是没有利润;而合作会带来50单位利润。所以,(进入,高价)不是一个精炼纳什均衡。剔除这个均衡,可以证明,(进入,高价)是唯一的子博弈精炼纳什均衡。[1] 在动态博弈中,参与人的行动有先后顺序,后行动的参与人在自己行动之前就可以观察到先行动者(参与人)的行为,并在此基础上选择相应的策略。而且,由于先行动者拥有后行动者可能选择策略的完全信息,因而先行动者在选择自己的策略时,就可以预先考虑自己的选择对后行动者选择的影响,并采取相应的对策。 利用房地产开发的例子,讨论子博弈精炼纳什均衡。表2给出了静态条件下双方参与人的收益情况。 表2 房地产开发博弈(静态)的收收益矩阵 子博弈精炼纳什均衡 从表2可以知道,该博弈有两个纳什均衡,即(A开发,B不开发)和(A不开发,B开发),我们无法确定是开发商A选择开发,开发商B选择不开发,还是恰恰相反的结果。 现在,我们讨论动态博弈。假定房地产开发商A是先行动者。在行动之前,开发商A对对手开发商B的策略进行了预测。在行动开始之前的A看来,如果不计得失,B有四种策略可供选择: 策略一:无论A是否选择开发,B选择开发。 策略二:若A选择开发,B也选择开发;若A选择不开发,B也选择不开发。 策略三:若A选择开发,B就选择不开发;若A选择不开发,B就选择开发。 策略四:无论A是否选择开发,B都选择不开发。 在表2的基础上,结合A先行动,B可能选择的四种策略,不难得出表3。 表3 先行动者A对B预测结果的收益矩阵 子博弈精炼纳什均衡 由表3可以看出,在开发商A先行动的情况下,开发商B可供选择的策略中,策略一只包括了上述两个纳什均衡中的后一种均衡,即(A不开发,B开发),而没有包括前一种纳什均衡,即(A开发,B不开发);策略二上述两种纳什均衡都没有包括;策略四只包括了上述两种纳什均衡中的前一种均衡,即(A开发,B不开发),而未包括后一种纳什均衡,即(A不开发,B开发);只有策略三既包括了上述两种纳什均衡中的前一种均衡,又包括了后一种均衡。也就是说,如果B选择策略三,那么,无论A作出什么选择,B的回应都能达到纳什均衡。反过来,在给定B会选择策略三来回应A的选择的前提下,开发是A的占优选择。因此,A一定会选择开发
A slang term for cash reserves kept on hand to cover future obligations. For example, if a venture capitalist expects bad times in the IPO markets you might hear him say something like, "we want to keep enough dry powder around to keep funding our companies through these hard times."
A corporate entity that is registered and conducts business in a different jurisdiction or country than the residency of the controlling owners. Control of the foreign company is defined, in the U.S., according to the percentage of shares owned by U.S. citizens. Controlled foreign corporation (CFC) laws work alongside tax treaties to dictate how taxpayers declare their foreign earnings. A CFC is advantageous for companies when the cost of setting up a business, foreign branches or partnerships in a foreign country is lower even after the tax implications, or when the global exposure could help the business grow. |||The CFC structure was created to help prevent tax evasion, which was done by setting up offshore companies in jurisdictions with little or no tax. Each country has its own CFC laws, but most are similar in that they tend to target individuals over multinational corporations when it comes to how they are taxed. For this reason, having a company qualify as independent will exempt it from CFC regulations.Countries differ in how they define the independence of a company. The determination can be based on how many individuals have a controlling interest in the company, as well as the percentage they control. For example, minimums can range from fewer than 10 to over 100 people, or 50% of voting shares, or 10% of the total outstanding shares.
什么是累进计件工资制 累进计件工资制是指在完成合格产品的条件下,定额以内部分按正常计件单价计算工资,超额部分按照一种或几种在原计件单价基础上递增的计件单价计算工资。 累进计件工资制的计算 其计算公式: 实得计件工资 = (定额内部分×一般计件单价)+ ∑(超定额部分×累进计件单价) 例:某厂规定完成产量定额200件以内,计件单价为2.8元,超额完成1%~10%部分累进计件单价3元,超额完成10%~20%部分,累进计件单价3.2元,超额完成20%以上部分累进计件单价3.4元计算,工人甲当月实际完成产量250件,求其实得计件工资。 根据公式,则为: 实得计件工资 =(200×2.8)+(20×3)+(20×3.2)+(10×3.4)= 718(元) 累进计件工资制的评价 累进计件工资制可直接累进,也可分段累进。适用于超额难度大,而又急需增加产量的产品。 累进计件工资激励作用大,能促进劳动生产率的较快提高。实行这种计件时,必须制定先进合理的劳动定额和预先计算其经济效益。否则,定额偏低,超额过高、成本加大,造成工资基金增加过多,经济效益有可能达不到预期的目标。因此,实行累进计件工资必须实行有技术根据的先进合理的劳动定额,计件单价的递增比例必须事先要有精确测算,以保证实现预期的经济效益目标。
The aggregate amount that an investment has gained or lost over time, independent of the period of time involved. Presented as a percentage, the cumulative return is the raw mathematical return of the following calculation: Investors are more likely to see a compound return than a cumulative return, as the compound return figure will be annualized. This helps investors to compare different investment choices. A common way to present the "effect" of a mutual fund's performance over time is to show the cumulative return with a visual such as a mountain graph. Investors should check to confirm whether interest and/or dividends are included in the cumulative return; such payouts may be assumed to be re-invested or simply counted as raw dollars when calculating the cumulative return. Any marketing material for a mutual fund or similar investment should state any assumptions clearly when presenting such performance data.