什么是SaaS SaaS是一种通过Internet提供软件的模式，用户不用再购买软件，而改用向提供商租用基于Web的软件，来管理企业经营活动，且无需对软件进行维护，服务提供商会全权管理和维护软件，对于许多小型企业来说，SaaS是采用先进技术的最好途径，它消除了企业购买、构建和维护基础设施和应用程序的需要，近年来，SaaS的兴起已经给传统套装软件厂商带来真实的压力。 SaaS服务提供模式 SaaS服务提供商为中小企业搭建信息化所需要的所有网络基础设施及软件、硬件运作平台，并负责所有前期的实施、后期的维护等一系列服务，企业无需购买软硬件、建设机房、招聘IT人员，只需前期支付一次性的项目实施费和定期的软件租赁服务费，即可通过互联网享用信息系统。服务提供商通过有效的技术措施，可以保证每家企业数据的安全性和保密性。企业采用SaaS服务模式在效果上与企业自建信息系统基本没有区别，但节省了大量用于购买IT产品、技术和维护运行的资金，且像打开自来水龙头就能用水一样，方便地利用信息化系统，从而大幅度降低了中小企业信息化的门槛与风险。 SaaS让CIO面临三重转变 不仅厂商们关注着SaaS的发展，一些有远见的CIO们也同样对SaaS模式充满了期待。把过去一些底层的事务性工作交给SaaS服务商来完成，让CIO腾出更多的时间来关注其它工作。SaaS为CIO的带来了新的工作内容的同时，也让CIO面临着三重观念转变。 首先，在战略层面上，CIO应该从以前被动为企业战略服务的角色变为主动地战略思考，利用最适合的信息技术去帮助企业提升核心竞争力。 其次，在管理层面上，CIO要认识到SaaS的大趋势，顺应这种趋势。更多的思考如何利用专业的IT服务，来提高自己的ROI：哪些工作适合外包，哪些软件适合采用SaaS，哪些需要自行购买和实施，这些问题将成为CIO更关注的问题。 最后，在决策层面上，企业的CIO应在尽可能贴近企业核心业务的同时，努力提高对科技市场的把握和决策信息的收集。采用专业的科技信息咨询服务提供商的服务，掌握与自己相关的科技市场的动向，结合自己对企业核心业务的理解，进行科学决策。这才是新一代企业CIO的价值所在。 SaaS服务的优缺点 对企业来说，SaaS的优点在于： 1. 从技术方面来看：企业无需再配备IT方面的专业技术人员，同时又能得到最新的技术应用，满足企业对信息管理的需求。 2. 从投资方面来看：企业只以相对低廉的“月费”方式投资，不用一次性投资到位，不占用过多的营运资金，从而缓解企业资金不足的压力；不用考虑成本折旧问题，并能及时获得最新硬件平台及最佳解决方案。 3. 从维护和管理方面来看：由于企业采取租用的方式来进行物流业务管理，不需要专门的维护和管理人员，也不需要为维护和管理人员支付额外费用。很大程度上缓解企业在人力、财力上的压力，使其能够集中资金对核心业务进行有效的运营。 认识SaaS的缺点 不过，正如进行其他决策一样，一定要留意SaaS的相关缺点。尤为重要的是有必要知道实施SaaS项目不可能解决企业的所有问题，毕竟，通过SaaS解决方案获得的只不过是一个软件平台。以下这些问题需要注意： 企业的内部流程； 如何处理审计和合规问题； 在有效使用工具方面进行内部培训，从而解决内部业务问题； 要定期向提供商支付费用； 将外部的SaaS解决方案与内部的业务解决方案以及其他外部的SaaS解决方案集成起来。 SaaS并不是什么“万灵药”，明白这点很重要。另外一点是，与从外部提供商获得的任何服务一样，确保企业可以依靠服务提供商通过持续、稳定、具有成本效益的方式提供服务，这同样很重要。不过尽管SaaS提供商本身可能存在这样那样的缺点，但还是值得投资购买对方的服务，如果这意味着自己可以避免经历成长的麻烦，更是如此。 SaaS的客户价值 SaaS服务提供商为中小企业搭建信息化所需要的所有网络基础设施及软件、硬件运作平台，并负责所有前期的实施、后期的维护等一系列服务，企业无需购买软硬件、建设机房、招聘IT人员，只需前期支付一次性的项目实施费和定期的软件租赁服务费，即可通过互联网享用信息系统。服务提供商通过有效的技术措施，可以保证每家企业数据的安全性和保密性。企业采用SaaS服务模式在效果上与企业自建信息系统基本没有区别，但节省了大量用于购买IT产品、技术和维护运行的资金，且像打开自来水龙头就能用水一样，方便地利用信息化系统，从而大幅度降低了中小企业信息化的门槛与风险。具体来说saas可以为客户带来如下的价值：服务的收费方式风险小，灵活选择模块，备份，维护，安全，升级让客户更专注核心业务灵活启用和暂停，随时随地都可使用按需定购，选择更加自由产品更新速度加快市场空间增大实现年息式的循环收入模式有效降低营销成本准面对面使用指导在全球各地，7*24全天候网络服务不需要额外增加专业的IT人员大大降低客户的总体拥有成本 挑选SaaS供应商企业需要注意十要素 1. 动态计费。我们只应当为使用的那部分服务付费，这是一个基本原则。公司的业务是动态的，很有可能有几个月业务量增长，有几个月业务量减少。如果企业的使用量有变化，那么支付的SaaS费用也应当随之变化。这对零售业或服务业等一些受季节性影响明显的行业尤其重要。另外，千万不要答应支付“软件维护费”或者购买事先确定的“用户许可证”，因为这样一来，改用SaaS模式的一个首要目的简化IT的管理也就无从谈起了。 2. 安全性。安全压倒一切。大多数用户只是问问SaaS厂商是不是采用了安全套接层（SSL）技术，而安全性涵盖的不仅仅只有这个方面。要向潜在的SaaS厂商询问下列问题:放置服务器的数据中心有没有24×7全天候的物理安全措施？数据中心有没有得到保护（保安是不是24小时在周围至少巡视一次）？谁有权访问这些服务器（只有内部员工可以访问，还是承包商也可以访问？）有没有日志记录谁何时进入、何时离开？如果有日志，那么隔多长时间审计这些日志？应用程序有没有使用基于行业标准的128位加密技术？如果多个客户使用的应用程序放在同一台服务器上，那么它们有没有采用逻辑或物理分隔，从而确保你的数据不被未授权的人所看到？SaaS厂商中可以访问你企业数据的工作人员有没有经过犯罪背景调查？知道被定罪的重罪犯是不能访问你企业那些敏感的个人数据，这很重要。厂商有没有正规的业务连续性方案（BCP）？对方愿不愿意与你共享该方案、它能消除你的担忧吗？ 3. 完全基于Web。选择一个能提供完全基于Web的解决方案的SaaS合作伙伴，这个同样很重要。这意味着用户应当远离那些需要把应用程序安装到计算机上的厂商。如果仍要维护客户端软件，基于Web的应用程序带来的一个最主要优点也就荡然无存了。 另外，问一下SaaS应用程序是不是可以运行在所有浏览器上，还是只能运行在Internet Explorer上？真正的SaaS产品可以运行在任何平台、任何Web浏览器上。由于眼下FireFox、Safari和Chrome等浏览器大行其道，你需要确信: 一旦正在使用的计算机崩溃，可以立即在一台新计算机上访问应用程序（不必为本地安装而操心）。真正的无缝切换意味着你的业务连续性不会受到影响。 4. 厂商的经验。你需要确信自己选择的SaaS供应商在运行应用程序和托管应用程序方面都有着丰富经验。许多软件公司试图对现有的客户机/服务器应用进行程序 “网络化”，简单地改头换面后就开始托管。实际上，它们只是对传统的软件产品进行一些表面上的改造，并换上SaaS的品牌。这其实是被动而不是主动的软件开发，而且通常解决不了扩展性问题，更重要的是，解决不了安全性问题。你所选择的SaaS厂商应当在应用程序托管方面至少要有3～5年的经验，那样才能避免早期采用者遇到的一些问题。 5. 升级周期。使用SaaS解决方案的主要优点之一是，能够获得自动升级的便利。升级可确保你总是使用最新版本，而且使用最新功能。这种升级应当不需要任何费用，也根本不需要重新培训你的员工。这意味着一旦部署了新功能，它们对你开展业务的方式应当没有任何干扰性影响。 6. 集成能力。该SaaS解决方案能不能与你现有的软件进行集成？SaaS服务应当为你提供这样的功能: 只要使用基于文件（Excel文件或.csv文件格式）等方法或者使用Web服务就能与内部部署的应用软件无缝交换数据，从而可以让数据在软件之间自由进出。 7. 备份。企业的数据至关重要，所以，在挑选SaaS厂商时，务必确信对方有相应的备份机制，这一点很关键。最起码，除了每周一次的异地备份外，它还需要每晚进行一次备份。要问的其他问题还有: 服务供应商隔多长时间测试数据库恢复，遇到紧急情况这家厂商能不能从容地恢复大量数据。 8. 数据中心。确认托管该解决方案的是谁。有些厂商会自己运行和管理SaaS软件（即内部托管软件），而有一些厂商与第三方（名为管理服务或主机托管提供商）签有托管协议。有必要调查一下该厂商用来托管SaaS解决方案的是哪一个数据中心。数据中心最好通过了某些业内的审计，不妨要求厂商出示一份这样的报告。另外，你要确信数据中心采用了N+1配置，这意味着每个系统至少有一套独立的备份机制。万一出现系统故障，仍可以确保可用性。不过，许多数据中心不允许上门参观，但总是可以上它们的网站虚拟参观一下，以了解更多信息。 9. 可扩展性。可扩展性始终与用户体验息息相关。所选择的SaaS厂商需要证明: 它能够与公司一同发展。问一下厂商他们最大的客户有哪些？你企业的要求会不会超出他们当前的最大客户？厂商会不会需要任何特别的准备才能适应你的未来发展？厂商的发展计划又怎样？别想当然地以为所有SaaS厂商都会与你的公司一同成长。事实并非总是如此，你有必要事先认真调查一番。 10. 监控。有没有落实监控SaaS系统的机制很重要。这个关键问题常常被忽视，或者只是一带而过。问问厂商是不是仅仅执行“ping测试”，还是采用了监控软件来检查防火墙内外的系统。毕竟，即使服务器在防火墙内部顺畅运行，要是防火墙或路由设置出了问题，用户同样无法访问外部系统。 一旦你选定了SaaS服务供应商，并且与对方建立了合作关系，最好每半年评估一次厂商的服务，确保厂商全面符合上述这10个标准。毫无疑问，SaaS会继续改变软件行业乃至整个IT业格局。SaaS厂商们会继续在这个大舞台上争夺用户，所以，用户应该对厂商进行精挑细选。要记住，也是最为重要的是，作为用户要做好份内事，换而言之，用户必须确信SaaS供应商也做好了份内事。
Preamble The World Trade Organization ("WTO"), pursuant to the approval of the Ministerial Conference of the WTO accorded under Article XII of the Marrakesh Agreement Establishing the World Trade Organization ("WTO Agreement"), and the People's Republic of China ("China"), Recalling that China was an original contracting party to the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade 1947, Taking note that China is a signatory to the Final Act Embodying the Results of the Uruguay Round of Multilateral Trade Negotiations, Taking note of the Report of the Working Party on the Accession of China in document WT/ACC/CHN/49 ("Working Party Report"), Having regard to the results of the negotiations concerning China's membership in the WTO, Agree as follows: Part I - General Provisions 1. General 1. Upon accession, China accedes to the WTO Agreement pursuant to Article XII of that Agreement and thereby becomes a Member of the WTO. 2. The WTO Agreement to which China accedes shall be the WTO Agreement as rectified, amended or otherwise modified by such legal instruments as may have entered into force before the date of accession. This Protocol, which shall include the commitments referred to in paragraph 342 of the Working Party Report, shall be an integral part of the WTO Agreement. 3. Except as otherwise provided for in this Protocol, those obligations in the Multilateral Trade Agreements annexed to the WTO Agreement that are to be implemented over a period of time starting with entry into force of that Agreement shall be implemented by China as if it had accepted that Agreement on the date of its entry into force. 4. China may maintain a measure inconsistent with paragraph 1of Article II of the General Agreement on Trade in Services ("GATS") provided that such a measure is recorded in the List of Article II Exemptions annexed to this Protocol and meets the conditions of the Annex to the GATS on Article II Exemptions. 2. Administration of the Trade Regime (A) Uniform Administration 1. The provisions of the WTO Agreement and this Protocol shall apply to the entire customs territory of China, including border trade regions and minority autonomous areas, Special Economic Zones, open coastal cities, economic and technical development zones and other areas where special regimes for tariffs, taxes and regulations are established (collectively referred to as "special economic areas"). 2. China shall apply and administer in a uniform, impartial and reasonable manner all its laws, regulations and other measures of the central government as well as local regulations, rules and other measures issued or applied at the sub-national level (collectively referred to as "laws, regulations and other measures") pertaining to or affecting trade in goods, services, trade-related aspects of intellectual property rights ("TRIPS") or the control of foreign exchange. 3. China's local regulations, rules and other measures of local governments at the sub-national level shall conform to the obligations undertaken in the WTO Agreement and this Protocol. 4. China shall establish a mechanism under which individuals and enterprises can bring to the attention of the national authorities cases of non-uniform application of the trade regime. (B) Special Economic Areas 1. China shall notify to the WTO all the relevant laws, regulations and other measures relating to its special economic areas, listing these areas by name and indicating the geographic boundaries that define them. China shall notify the WTO promptly, but in any case within 60 days, of any additions or modifications to its special economic areas, including notification of the laws, regulations and other measures relating thereto. 2. China shall apply to imported products, including physically incorporated components, introduced into the other parts of China's customs territory from the special economic areas, all taxes, charges and measures affecting imports, including import restrictions and customs and tariff charges, that are normally applied to imports into the other parts of China's customs territory. 3. Except as otherwise provided for in this Protocol, in providing preferential arrangements for enterprises within such special economic areas, WTO provisions on non-discrimination and national treatment shall be fully observed. (C) Transparency 1. China undertakes that only those laws, regulations and other measures pertaining to or affecting trade in goods, services, TRIPS or the control of foreign exchange that are published and readily available to other WTO Members, individuals and enterprises, shall be enforced. In addition, China shall make available to WTO Members, upon request, all laws, regulations and other measures pertaining to or affecting trade in goods, services, TRIPS or the control of foreign exchange before such measures are implemented or enforced. In emergency situations, laws, regulations and other measures shall be made available at the latest when they are implemented or enforced. 2. China shall establish or designate an official journal dedicated to the publication of all laws, regulations and other measures pertaining to or affecting trade in goods, services, TRIPS or the control of foreign exchange and, after publication of its laws, regulations or other measures in such journal, shall provide a reasonable period for comment to the appropriate authorities before such measures are implemented, except for those laws, regulations and other measures involving national security, specific measures setting foreign exchange rates or monetary policy and other measures the publication of which would impede law enforcement. China shall publish this journal on a regular basis and make copies of all issues of this journal readily available to individuals and enterprises. 3. China shall establish or designate an enquiry point where, upon request of any individual, enterprise or WTO Member all information relating to the measures required to be published under paragraph 2(C)1 of this Protocol may be obtained. Replies to requests for information shall generally be provided within 30 days after receipt of a request. In exceptional cases, replies may be provided within 45 days after receipt of a request. Notice of the delay and the reasons therefor shall be provided in writing to the interested party. Replies to WTO Members shall be complete and shall represent the authoritative view of the Chinese government. Accurate and reliable information shall be provided to individuals and enterprises. (D) Judicial Review 1. China shall establish, or designate, and maintain tribunals, contact points and procedures for the prompt review of all administrative actions relating to the implementation of laws, regulations, judicial decisions and administrative rulings of general application referred to in Article X:1 of the GATT 1994, Article VI of the GATS and the relevant provisions of the TRIPS Agreement. Such tribunals shall be impartial and independent of the agency entrusted with administrative enforcement and shall not have any substantial interest in the outcome of the matter. 2. Review procedures shall include the opportunity for appeal, without penalty, by individuals or enterprises affected by any administrative action subject to review. If the initial right of appeal is to an administrative body, there shall in all cases be the opportunity to choose to appeal the decision to a judicial body. Notice of the decision on appeal shall be given to the appellant and the reasons for such decision shall be provided in writing. The appellant shall also be informed of any right to further appeal. 3. Non-discrimination Except as otherwise provided for in this Protocol, foreign individuals and enterprises and foreign-funded enterprises shall be accorded treatment no less favourable than that accorded to other individuals and enterprises in respect of: (a) the procurement of inputs and goods and services necessary for production and the conditions under which their goods are produced, marketed or sold, in the domestic market and for export; and (b) the prices and availability of goods and services supplied by national and sub-national authorities and public or state enterprises, in areas including transportation, energy, basic telecommunications, other utilities and factors of production. 4. Special Trade Arrangements Upon accession, China shall eliminate or bring into conformity with the WTO Agreement all special trade arrangements, including barter trade arrangements, with third countries and separate customs territories, which are not in conformity with the WTO Agreement. 5. Right to Trade 1. Without prejudice to China's right to regulate trade in a manner consistent with the WTO Agreement, China shall progressively liberalize the availability and scope of the right to trade, so that, within three years after accession, all enterprises in China shall have the right to trade in all goods throughout the customs territory of China, except for those goods listed in Annex 2A which continue to be subject to state trading in accordance with this Protocol. Such right to trade shall be the right to import and export goods. All such goods shall be accorded national treatment under Article III of the GATT 1994, especially paragraph 4 thereof, in respect of their internal sale, offering for sale, purchase, transportation, distribution or use, including their direct access to end-users. For those goods listed in Annex 2B, China shall phase out limitation on the grant of trading rights pursuant to the schedule in that Annex. China shall complete all necessary legislative procedures to implement these provisions during the transition period. 2. Except as otherwise provided for in this Protocol, all foreign individuals and enterprises, including those not invested or registered in China, shall be accorded treatment no less favourable than that accorded to enterprises in China with respect to the right to trade. 6. State Trading 1. China shall ensure that import purchasing procedures of state trading enterprises are fully transparent, and in compliance with the WTO Agreement, and shall refrain from taking any measure to influence or direct state trading enterprises as to the quantity, value, or country of origin of goods purchased or sold, except in accordance with the WTO Agreement. 2. As part of China's notification under the GATT 1994 and the Understanding on the Interpretation of Article XVII of the GATT 1994, China shall also provide full information on the pricing mechanisms of its state trading enterprises for exported goods. 7. Non-Tariff Measures 1. China shall implement the schedule for phased elimination of the measures contained in Annex 3. During the periods specified in Annex 3, the protection afforded by the measures listed in that Annex shall not be increased or expanded in size, scope or duration, nor shall any new measures be applied, unless in conformity with the provisions of the WTO Agreement. 2. In implementing the provisions of Articles III and XI of the GATT 1994 and the Agreement on Agriculture, China shall eliminate and shall not introduce, re-introduce or apply non-tariff measures that cannot be justified under the provisions of the WTO Agreement. For all non-tariff measures, whether or not referred to in Annex 3, that are applied after the date of accession, consistent with the WTO Agreement or this Protocol, China shall allocate and otherwise administer such measures in strict conformity with the provisions of the WTO Agreement, including GATT 1994 and Article XIII thereof, and the Agreement on import Licensing Procedures, including notification requirements. 3. China shall, upon accession, comply with the TRIMs Agreement, without recourse to the provisions of Article 5 of the TRIMs Agreement. China shall eliminate and cease to enforce trade and foreign exchange balancing requirements, local content and export or performance requirements made effective through laws, regulations or other measures. Moreover, China will not enforce provisions of contracts imposing such requirements. Without prejudice to the relevant provisions of this Protocol, China shall ensure that the distribution of import licences, quotas, tariff rate quotas, or any other means of approval for importation, the right of importation or investment by national and sub national authorities, is not conditioned on: whether competing domestic suppliers of such products exist; or performance requirements of any kind, such as local content, offsets, the transfer of technology, export performance or the conduct of research and development in China. 4. import and export prohibitions and restrictions, and licensing requirements affecting imports and exports shall only be imposed and enforced by the national authorities or by sub-national authorities with authorization from the national authorities. Such measures which are not imposed by the national authorities or by sub-national authorities with authorization from the national authorities, shall not be implemented or enforced. 8. import and Export Licensing 1. In implementing the WTO Agreement and provisions of the Agreement on import Licensing Procedures, China shall undertake the following measures to facilitate compliance with these agreements: (a) China shall publish on a regular basis the following in the official journal referred to in paragraph 2(C)2 of this Protocol: – by product, the list of all organizations, including those organizations delegated such authority by the national authorities, that are responsible for authorizing or approving imports or exports, whether through grant of licence or other approval; – procedures and criteria for obtaining such import or export licences or other approvals, and the conditions for deciding whether they should be granted; – a list of all products, by tariff number, that are subject to tendering requirements, including information on products subject to such tendering requirements and any changes, pursuant to the Agreement on import Licensing Procedures; – a list of all goods and technologies whose import or export are restricted or prohibited; these goods shall also be notified to the Committee on import Licensing; – any changes to the list of goods and technologies whose import and export are restricted or prohibited. Copies of these submissions in one or more official languages of the WTO shall be forwarded to the WTO for circulation to WTO Members and for submission to the Committee on import Licensing within 75 days of each publication. (b) China shall notify the WTO of all licensing and quota requirements remaining in effect after accession, listed separately by HS tariff line and with the quantities associated with the restriction, if any, and the justification for maintaining the restriction or its scheduled date of termination. (c) China shall submit the notification of its import licensing procedures to the Committee on import Licensing. China shall report annually to the Committee on import Licensing on its automatic import licensing procedures, explaining the circumstances which give rise to these requirements and justifying the need for their continuation. This report shall also provide the information listed in Article 3 of the Agreement on import Licensing Procedures. (d) China shall issue import licences for a minimum duration of validity of six months, except where exceptional circumstances make this impossible. In such cases, China shall promptly notify the Committee on import Licensing of the exceptional circumstances requiring the shorter period of licence validity. 2. Except as otherwise provided for in this Protocol, foreign individuals and enterprises and foreign-funded enterprises shall be accorded treatment no less favourable than that accorded to other individuals and enterprises in respect of the distribution of import and export licences and quotas. 9. Price Controls 1. China shall, subject to paragraph 2 below, allow prices for traded goods and services in every sector to be determined by market forces, and multi-tier pricing practices for such goods and services shall be eliminated. 2. The goods and services listed in Annex 4 may be subject to price controls, consistent with the WTO Agreement, in particular Article III of the GATT 1994 and Annex 2, paragraphs 3 and 4 of the Agreement on Agriculture. Except in exceptional circumstances, and subject to notification to the WTO, price controls shall not be extended to goods or services beyond those listed in Annex 4, and China shall make best efforts to reduce and eliminate these controls. 3. China shall publish in the official journal the list of goods and services subject to state pricing and changes thereto. 10. Subsidies 1. China shall notify the WTO of any subsidy within the meaning of Article 1 of the Agreement on Subsidies and Countervailing Measures ("SCM Agreement"), granted or maintained in its territory, organized by specific product, including those subsidies defined in Article 3 of the SCM Agreement. The information provided should be as specific as possible, following the requirements of the questionnaire on subsidies as noted in Article 25 of the SCM Agreement. 2. For purposes of applying Articles 1.2 and 2 of the SCM Agreement, subsidies provided to state-owned enterprises will be viewed as specific if, inter alia, state owned enterprises are the predominant recipients of such subsidies or state owned enterprises receive disproportionately large amounts of such subsidies. 3. China shall eliminate all subsidy programmes falling within the scope of Article 3 of the SCM Agreement upon accession. 11. Taxes and Charges Levied on imports and Exports 1. China shall ensure that customs fees or charges applied or administered by national or sub-national authorities, shall be in conformity with the GATT 1994. 2. China shall ensure that internal taxes and charges, including value-added taxes, applied or administered by national or sub-national authorities shall be in conformity with the GATT 1994. 3. China shall eliminate all taxes and charges applied to exports unless specifically provided for in Annex 6 of this Protocol or applied in conformity with the provisions of Article VIII of the GATT 1994. 4. Foreign individuals and enterprises and foreign-funded enterprises shall, upon accession, be accorded treatment no less favourable than that accorded to other individuals and enterprises in respect of the provision of border tax adjustments. 12. Agriculture 1. China shall implement the provisions contained in China's Schedule of Concessions and Commitments on Goods and, as specifically provided in this Protocol, those of the Agreement on Agriculture. In this context, China shall not maintain or introduce any export subsidies on agricultural products. 2. China shall, under the Transitional Review Mechanism, notify fiscal and other transfers between or among state-owned enterprises in the agricultural sector (whether national or sub-national) and other enterprises that operate as state trading enterprises in the agricultural sector. 13. Technical Barriers to Trade 1. China shall publish in the official journal all criteria, whether formal or informal, that are the basis for a technical regulation, standard or conformity assessment procedure. 2. China shall, upon accession, bring into conformity with the TBT Agreement all technical regulations, standards and conformity assessment procedures. 3. China shall apply conformity assessment procedures to imported products only to determine compliance with technical regulations and standards that are consistent with the provisions of this Protocol and the WTO Agreement. Conformity assessment bodies will determine the conformity of imported products with commercial terms of contracts only if authorized by the parties to such contract. China shall ensure that such inspection of products for compliance with the commercial terms of contracts does not affect customs clearance or the granting of import licences for such products. 4. (a) Upon accession, China shall ensure that the same technical regulations, standards and conformity assessment procedures are applied to both imported and domestic products. In order to ensure a smooth transition from the current system, China shall ensure that, upon accession, all certification, safety licensing, and quality licensing bodies and agencies are authorized to undertake these activities for both imported and domestic products, and that, one year after accession, all conformity assessment bodies and agencies are authorized to undertake conformity assessment for both imported and domestic products. The choice of body or agency shall be at the discretion of the applicant. For imported and domestic products, all bodies and agencies shall issue the same mark and charge the same fee. They shall also provide the same processing periods and complaint procedures. imported products shall not be subject to more than one conformity assessment. China shall publish and make readily available to other WTO Members, individuals, and enterprises full information on the respective responsibilities of its conformity assessment bodies and agencies. (b) No later than 18 months after accession, China shall assign the respective responsibilities of its conformity assessment bodies solely on the basis of the scope of work and type of product without any consideration of the origin of a product. The respective responsibilities that will be assigned to China’s conformity assessment bodies will be notified to the TBT Committee 12 months after accession. 14. Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures China shall notify to the WTO all laws, regulations and other measures relating to its sanitary and phytosanitary measures, including product coverage and relevant international standards, guidelines and recommendations, within 30 days after accession. 15. Price Comparability in Determining Subsidies and Dumping Article VI of the GATT 1994, the Agreement on Implementation of Article VI of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade 1994 ("Anti-Dumping Agreement") and the SCM Agreement shall apply in proceedings involving imports of Chinese origin into a WTO Member consistent with the following: (a) In determining price comparability under Article VI of the GATT 1994 and the Anti Dumping Agreement, the importing WTO Member shall use either Chinese prices or costs for the industry under investigation or a methodology that is not based on a strict comparison with domestic prices or costs in China based on the following rules: (i) If the producers under investigation can clearly show that market economy conditions prevail in the industry producing the like product with regard to the manufacture, production and sale of that product, the importing WTO Member shall use Chinese prices or costs for the industry under investigation in determining price comparability; (ii) The importing WTO Member may use a methodology that is not based on a strict comparison with domestic prices or costs in China if the producers under investigation cannot clearly show that market economy conditions prevail in the industry producing the like product with regard to manufacture, production and sale of that product. (b) In proceedings under Parts II, III and V of the SCM Agreement, when addressing subsidies described in Articles 14(a), 14(b), 14(c) and 14(d), relevant provisions of the SCM Agreement shall apply; however, if there are special difficulties in that application, the importing WTO Member may then use methodologies for identifying and measuring the subsidy benefit which take into account the possibility that prevailing terms and conditions in China may not always be available as appropriate benchmarks. In applying such methodologies, where practicable, the importing WTO Member should adjust such prevailing terms and conditions before considering the use of terms and conditions prevailing outside China. (c) The importing WTO Member shall notify methodologies used in accordance with subparagraph (a) to the Committee on Anti-Dumping Practices and shall notify methodologies used in accordance with subparagraph (b) to the Committee on Subsidies and Countervailing Measures. (d) once China has established, under the national law of the importing WTO Member, that it is a market economy, the provisions of subparagraph (a) shall be terminated provided that the importing Member's national law contains market economy criteria as of the date of accession. In any event, the provisions of subparagraph (a)(ii) shall expire 15 years after the date of accession. In addition, should China establish, pursuant to the national law of the importing WTO Member, that market economy conditions prevail in a particular industry or sector, the non market economy provisions of subparagraph (a) shall no longer apply to that industry or sector. 16. Transitional Product-Specific Safeguard Mechanism 1. In cases where products of Chinese origin are being imported into the territory of any WTO Member in such increased quantities or under such conditions as to cause or threaten to cause market disruption to the domestic producers of like or directly competitive products, the WTO Member so affected may request consultations with China with a view to seeking a mutually satisfactory solution, including whether the affected WTO Member should pursue application of a measure under the Agreement on Safeguards. Any such request shall be notified immediately to the Committee on Safeguards. 2. If, in the course of these bilateral consultations, it is agreed that imports of Chinese origin are such a cause and that action is necessary, China shall take such action as to prevent or remedy the market disruption. Any such action shall be notified immediately to the Committee on Safeguards. 3. If consultations do not lead to an agreement between China and the WTO Member concerned within 60 days of the receipt of a request for consultations, the WTO Member affected shall be free, in respect of such products, to withdraw concessions or otherwise to limit imports only to the extent necessary to prevent or remedy such market disruption. Any such action shall be notified immediately to the Committee on Safeguards. 4. Market disruption shall exist whenever imports of an article, like or directly competitive with an article produced by the domestic industry, are increasing rapidly, either absolutely or relatively, so as to be a significant cause of material injury, or threat of material injury to the domestic industry. In determining if market disruption exists, the affected WTO Member shall consider objective factors, including the volume of imports, the effect of imports on prices for like or directly competitive articles, and the effect of such imports on the domestic industry producing like or directly competitive products. 5. Prior to application of a measure pursuant to paragraph 3, the WTO Member taking such action shall provide reasonable public notice to all interested parties and provide adequate opportunity for importers, exporters and other interested parties to submit their views and evidence on the appropriateness of the proposed measure and whether it would be in the public interest. The WTO Member shall provide written notice of the decision to apply a measure, including the reasons for such measure and its scope and duration. 6. A WTO Member shall apply a measure pursuant to this Section only for such period of time as may be necessary to prevent or remedy the market disruption. If a measure is taken as a result of a relative increase in the level of imports, China has the right to suspend the application of substantially equivalent concessions or obligations under the GATT 1994 to the trade of the WTO Member applying the measure, if such measure remains in effect more than two years. However, if a measure is taken as a result of an absolute increase in imports, China has a right to suspend the application of substantially equivalent concessions or obligations under the GATT 1994 to the trade of the WTO Member applying the measure, if such measure remains in effect more than three years. Any such action by China shall be notified immediately to the Committee on Safeguards. 7. In critical circumstances, where delay would cause damage which it would be difficult to repair, the WTO Member so affected may take a provisional safeguard measure pursuant to a preliminary determination that imports have caused or threatened to cause market disruption. In this case, notification of the measures taken to the Committee on Safeguards and a request for bilateral consultations shall be effected immediately thereafter. The duration of the provisional measure shall not exceed 200 days during which the pertinent requirements of paragraphs 1, 2 and 5 shall be met. The duration of any provisional measure shall be counted toward the period provided for under paragraph 6. 8. If a WTO Member considers that an action taken under paragraphs 2, 3 or 7 causes or threatens to cause significant diversions of trade into its market, it may request consultations with China and/or the WTO Member concerned. Such consultations shall be held within 30 days after the request is notified to the Committee on Safeguards. If such consultations fail to lead to an agreement between China and the WTO Member or Members concerned within 60 days after the notification, the requesting WTO Member shall be free, in respect of such product, to withdraw concessions accorded to or otherwise limit imports from China, to the extent necessary to prevent or remedy such diversions. Such action shall be notified immediately to the Committee on Safeguards. 9. Application of this Section shall be terminated 12 years after the date of accession. 17. Reservations by WTO Members All prohibitions, quantitative restrictions and other measures maintained by WTO Members against imports from China in a manner inconsistent with the WTO Agreement are listed in Annex 7. All such prohibitions, quantitative restrictions and other measures shall be phased out or dealt with in accordance with mutually agreed terms and timetables as specified in the said Annex. 18. Transitional Review Mechanism 1. Those subsidiary bodies of the WTO which have a mandate covering China's commitments under the WTO Agreement or this Protocol shall, within one year after accession and in accordance with paragraph 4 below, review, as appropriate to their mandate, the implementation by China of the WTO Agreement and of the related provisions of this Protocol. China shall provide relevant information, including information specified in Annex 1A, to each subsidiary body in advance of the review. China can also raise issues relating to any reservations under Section 17 or to any other specific commitments made by other Members in this Protocol, in those subsidiary bodies which have a relevant mandate. Each subsidiary body shall report the results of such review promptly to the relevant Council established by paragraph 5 of Article IV of the WTO Agreement, if applicable, which shall in turn report promptly to the General Council. 2. The General Council shall, within one year after accession, and in accordance with paragraph 4 below, review the implementation by China of the WTO Agreement and the provisions of this Protocol. The General Council shall conduct such review in accordance with the framework set out in Annex 1B and in the light of the results of any reviews held pursuant to paragraph 1. China also can raise issues relating to any reservations under Section 17 or to any other specific commitments made by other Members in this Protocol. The General Council may make recommendations to China and to other Members in these respects. 3. Consideration of issues pursuant to this Section shall be without prejudice to the rights and obligations of any Member, including China, under the WTO Agreement or any Plurilateral Trade Agreement, and shall not preclude or be a precondition to recourse to consultation or other provisions of the WTO Agreement or this Protocol. 4. The review provided for in paragraphs 1 and 2 will take place after accession in each year for eight years. Thereafter there will be a final review in year 10 or at an earlier date decided by the General Council. Part II - Schedules 1. The Schedules annexed to this Protocol shall become the Schedule of Concessions and Commitments annexed to the GATT 1994 and the Schedule of Specific Commitments annexed to the GATS relating to China. The staging of concessions and commitments listed in the Schedules shall be implemented as specified in the relevant parts of the relevant Schedules. 2. For the purpose of the reference in paragraph 6(a) of Article II of the GATT 1994 to the date of that Agreement, the applicable date in respect of the Schedules of Concessions and Commitments annexed to this Protocol shall be the date of accession. Part III - Final Provisions 1. This Protocol shall be open for acceptance, by signature or otherwise, by China until 1 January 2002. 2. This Protocol shall enter into force on the thirtieth day following the day of its acceptance. 3. This Protocol shall be deposited with the Director-General of the WTO. The Director-General shall promptly furnish a certified copy of this Protocol and a notification of acceptance by China thereof, pursuant to paragraph 1 of Part III of this Protocol, to each WTO Member and to China. 4. This Protocol shall be registered in accordance with the provisions of Article 102 of the Charter of the United Nations. Done at Doha this tenth day of November two thousand and one, in a single copy, in the English, French and Spanish languages, each text being authentic, except that a Schedule annexed hereto may specify that it is authentic in only one or more of these languages.
什么是P2P电子商务 P2P电子商务又称对等电子商务，是使用对等网络技术，互联网用户不需要通过中央WEB服务器就可以直接共享文件和计算机资源。如Napster.com，这个网站帮助Internet用户查找和共享网上音乐文件MP3。 P2P网络彻底消除了对中央服务器的需求，它可以让用户彼此之间直接共享、搜索和交换数据，被认为是给电子商务的发展带来革命性影响的技术。 P2P电子商务的现状 我国的电子商务开始于20世纪90年代。从一开始的企业对个人（B2C），到后来的企业对企业（B2B）、个人对个人（C2C），电子商务在我国取得了良好的发展，又出现了企业对政府（B2G）等一些新的商业形式。这些电子商务运行模式，都要求集中存储和发布相关的商务信息，以C/S的方式实现信息交互，完成交易过程，服务器的“瓶颈”问题制约了它们的进一步发展。P2P技术为电子商务的发展提供了一条新的途径，基于P2P技术建立的电子商务，可以较好的融合安全性和易用性，促进电子商务在我国的发展。 在纯对等网络技术中，不需要中间媒介的参与。简单地说，P2P直接将人们联系起来，让人们通过互联网直接交互。P2P使得网络上的沟通变得容易、更直接共享和交互，真正地消除中间商。P2P可以直接连接到其他用户的计算机、交换文件，而不是像过去那样连接到服务器去浏览与下载。P2P另一个重要特点是改变互联网现在的以大网站为中心的状态、重返“非中心化”，并把权力交还给用户。 P2P给互联网的分布、共享精神带来了无限的遐想，有人认为至少有100种应用能被开发出来，但从目前的应用来看，P2P的威力还主要体现在大范围的共享、搜索的优势上。在这方面主要引发了，或者是说更好地解决了网络上四大类型的应用：对等计算、协同工作、搜索引擎、文件交换。 P2P电子商务的评析 将P2P技术应用于电子商务目前处于发展初期，很多人致力于此研究，在网络上也出现了一些基于P2P技术的电子商务系统，如Lightshare正在P2P网络上开展电子商务。P2P电子商务的优势主要体现为P2P在技术上的优势，这些优势使得一些在C/S（Client/Server）模式下很难实现的功能变得容易，甚至可以提供一些原来不可能提供的服务。 P2P电子商务中，用户拥有更为灵活的通信交易模式，在网络中的每个用户节点都可能相互访问到彼此，并直接发生交易，它正作为一种新兴的电子商务模式发展起来，但信任风险仍是P2P电子商务发展的主要障碍。
什么是P2P互动营销 P2P互动营销由北京企赢网多点商贸有限公司总经理、中国企赢网总裁赵春鹏提出。它是通过覆盖各地区、各行业的节点（渠道服务中心，每个节点既是本地产品资源的提供者，又是本地渠道资源的提供者），实现全国范围内的产品资源和渠道资源的整合和共享，搭建产品与渠道快速对接的桥梁，形成产品和渠道快速对接的营销渠道服务系统。 P2P互动营销的特点 P2P互动营销做为网络新技术模式的商业服务模式转化，特点是：信息交换、产品互动营销。 企业任何一个有市场竞争力的产品，都可以通过企赢网全国商务中心，为企业在当地签约最适合的产品代理商，相当于不花钱给企业在全国建立地区办事处，实现企业产品资源的优化配置，缩短市场开发时间，降低销售费用成本，稳定密切客户关系。
什么是M2M M2M（Machine to Machine）是通过移动通讯对设备进行有效控制，从而将商务的边界大幅度扩展或创造出较传统方式更高效率的经营方式亦或创造出完全不同于传统方式的全新服务。 M2M以设备通讯控制为核心，将原来低效率或甚至不可能的信息传输应用于商业中以获得更强的竞争力。M2M的商务模式目前应用方兴未艾，主要有移动物流管理（M-logistic management）、移动支付（M-POS）、移动监控（M-monitoring）等。">编辑] M2M的透析 M2M强调的是在商业活动中通过移动通讯技术和设备的应用变革既有商务模式或创造出新商务模式，是机器设备间的自动通讯。 从狭义上说，M2M只代表机器和机器之间的通信。目前，人们提到M2M的时候，更多的是指非IT机器设备通过移动通信网络与其他设备或IT系统的通信。放眼未来，人们认为M2M的范围不应拘泥于此，而是应该扩展到人对机器、机器对人、移动网络对机器之间的连接与通信。 现在，M2M应用遍及电力、交通、工业控制、零售、公共事业管理、医疗、水利、石油等多个行业，对于车辆防盗、安全监测、自动售货、机械维修、公共交通管理等，M2M可以说是无所不能。 M2M不是简单的数据在机器和机器之间的传输，更重要的是，它是机器和机器之间的一种智能化、交互式的通信。也就是说，即使人们没有实时发出信号，机器也会根据既定程序主动进行通信，并根据所得到的数据智能化地做出选择，对相关设备发出正确的指令。可以说，智能化、交互式成为了M2M有别于其它应用的典型特征，这一特征下的机器也被赋予了更多的“思想”和“智慧”。 人们纷纷看好了M2M的发展前景。一个出发点就是，在当今世界上，机器的数量至少是人的数量的4倍，这意味着巨大的市场潜力。NTTdocomo预测，2010年全球将有超过4000亿台的机器具备数据传输功能，取代人力控制和操作，实现设备的智能管理和服务。欧洲行业咨询机构IDATE则估计，到2010年M2M市场容量将达到2200亿欧元。 物联网与M2M的关系 M2M是machine-to-machine的简称，即“机器对机器”的缩写，也有人理解为人对机器(man-to-machine)、机器对人(machine-to-man)等，旨在通过通信技术来实现人、机器和系统三者之问的智能化、交互式无缝连接 。M2M设备是能够回答包含在一些设备中的数据的请求或能够自动传送包含在这些设备中的数据的设备。M2M通信与物联网的核心理念一致，不同之处是物联网的概念、所采用的技术及应用场景更宽泛。而M2M则聚焦在无线通信网络应用上，是物联网应用的一种主要方式。 相关条目 B2M 参考文献 ↑ 舒文琼.M2M：无联网风生水起
什么是M2C M2C（Manufacturers to Consumer）即生产厂家对消费者，是指生产厂家(Manufacturers)直接对消费者(Consumers)提供自己生产的产品或服务的一种商业模式，特点是流通环节减少至一对一，销售成本降低，从而保障了产品品质和售后服务质量。 M2C电子商务营销平台,是以互联网络和地面渠道的优势互补为基础，通过共享各地的终端推广渠道和售后服务网点，达成活化终端、减少商品流通环节，让产品从生产商（Manufacturers）直接到消费者(Consumers)，并由生产商为消费者提供M2C配送服务和M2C售后服务的商业模式。M2C与其他电子商务模式的区别 M2C是针对于B2M、B2C、C2C等电子商务模式而出现的延伸概念。B2M环节中，企业通过网络平台发布该企业的产品或者服务，职业经理人通过网络获取该企业的产品或者服务信息，并且为该企业提供产品销售或者提供企业服务，企业通过经理人的服务达到销售产品或者获得服务的目的；B2C是 “商对客”的一种模式，也就是通常说的商业零售，直接面向消费者销售产品和服务；C2C则是个人与个人之间的电子商务，卖家赚取的基本就是商品进出价的差价。而在M2C环节中，厂家将直接面对Consumer，即最终消费者。 M2C是B2M的延伸，也是B2M这个新型电子商务模式中不可缺少的一个后续发展环节。经理人最终还是要将产品销售给最终消费者，而这里面也有很大一部分是要通过电子商务的形式，类似于C2C，但又不完全一样。C2C是传统的盈利模式，赚取的基本就是商品进出价的差价。M2C则是生产厂家通过网络平台发布该企业的产品或者服务，消费者通过支付费用获得自己想要的。作为首家M2C商业模式的电子商务运营模式，赛购网上的商铺具有100%实体店的认证，为消费者网上购物提供了安全保证。 B2B (Business to Business) 是指商家与商家建立的商业关系。例如，我们在麦当劳中只能够买到可口可乐是因为麦当劳与可口可乐中的商业伙伴的关系。商家们建立商业伙伴的关系是希望通过大家所提供的东西来形成一个互补的发展机会,大家的生意都可以有利润。例子：阿里巴巴、慧聪。 B2C (Business to Consumer) 就是我们很经常看到的供应商直接把商品卖给用户。例如你去麦当劳吃东西就是B2C，因为你只是一个客户。例子：当当、卓越、优凯特。 C2C (Consumer to Consumer)，客户之间自己把东西放上网去卖。例子：淘宝、拍拍、易趣。 C2B (Consumer to Business)，意思是由客户选择自己要些什么东西，要求的价格是什么，然后由商家来决定是否接受客户的要求。假如商家接受客户的要求，那么交易成功； 假如商家不接受客户的要求，那么就是交易失败。 M2C即Manufacturers to Consumer(生产厂家对消费者)，生产厂家(Manufacturers)直接对消费者(Consumers)提供自己生产的产品或服务的一种商业模式，特点是流通环节减少至一对一，销售成本降低，从而保障了产品品质和售后服务质量。例子：爱缪斯*雅特。 M2C的价格优势 M2C最大的优势体现在价格上。就拿服装来说，M2C的意思是工厂到消费者，舍弃一切盘剥、虚高浪费的环节，让消费者提供能以最合理的价格，享受世界一流潮流服饰品牌的高贵品质。 做品牌服装的都知道，进驻商场一般都采用的收取销售提成的模式，以品牌销售额25%-30%作为卖场租金，再加上区域代理商的代理费、门店装修费、店铺人员人工以及其他费用，总共大概占了销售额的70%-90%多，而这些最终落实到消费者买单，这对消费者来说，肯定是不公平的。爱缪斯*雅特采取M2C模式，让产品购买价格大幅降低。而且就目前形势来看，爱缪斯*雅特采取的M2C模式一定是未来中国服装消费的必然趋势，首先是为了保证产品质量，其次是为了配合互联网的最大特点“快”，最后是让产品价值回归本源。 可以说，只有在中国自建工厂才能保证货品的及时性，只有自建工厂才能从品质上得到根本的保证，只有自建工厂才能保证最低的价格，因为尽量避免更多的中间商，这样才能保证价格优势，才能把真正优质低价的服饰带给网民。 M2C模式建站必须遵循的四大标准 一、Website Aesthetics 网页审美 不以炫目，怪异来夺人眼球，而是以专业的方式来展示独特的商品信息和服务，符合大众审美，并有艺术感的亮点存在，能在第一时间内给潜在客户留下印象。 二、Usability 可用性 专注于怎样让用户搜索、比较、购买流程更便捷，获得良好的用户体验。 三、Content 内容为王 探寻客户的潜在客户需求，为潜在客户提供最有价值的信息，引导和教育客户怎样去选择和鉴定商品，并且让客户相信这些信息及服务足够让他们付诸行动购买，提供最具商业价值的网站结构布局。 四、SEO 搜索引擎优化 即网站优化，正确运用各种设计元素，让搜索引擎更易抓取，提升网站的营销价值。 综上所述，网站建设对于M2C电子商务企业有着举足轻重的作用，是客户了解企业最方便最直观的途径，一个集审美、内容、实用且具营销价值的企业网站，在以用户体验为关注点的电子商务、网络购物的互联网经济中更具有战略意义，B2M企业一定要选择合适的网站建设服务商，量身打造适合自己行业、产品及品牌风格的个性化营销型站点。
什么是HTTP协议 HTTP协议（Hypertext Transfer Protocol，超文本传输协议）是用于从WWW服务器传输超文本到本地浏览器的传送协议。它可以使浏览器更加高效，使网络传输减少。 我们在浏览器的地址栏里输入的网站地址叫做URL(UniformResourceLocator，统一资源定位符)。就像每家每户都有一个门牌地址一样，每个网页也都有一个Internet地址。当你在浏览器的地址框中输入一个URL或是单击一个超级链接时，URL就确定了要浏览的地址。浏览器通过超文本传输协议(HTTP)，将Web服务器上站点的网页代码提取出来，并翻译成漂亮的网页。因此，在我们认识HTTP之前，有必要先弄清楚URL的组成, 例如：http://www.mbalib.com/china/index.htm 它的含义如下： 1.http://：代表超文本传输协议，通知microsoft.com服务器显示Web页，通常不用输入； 2.www：代表一个Web(万维网)服务器； 3.mbalib.com/：这是装有网页的服务器的域名，或站点服务器的名称； 4.China/：为该服务器上的子目录，就好像我们的文件夹； 5.Index.htm:是文件夹中的一个HTML文件(网页)。 Internet的基本协议是TCP/IP协议，然而在TCP/IP模型最上层的是应用层(Applicationlayer)，它包含所有高层的协议。高层协议有：文件传输协议FTP、电子邮件传输协议SMTP、域名系统服务DNS、网络新闻传输协议NNTP和HTTP协议等。 HTTP协议不仅保证计算机正确快速地传输超文本文档，还确定传输文档中的哪一部分，以及哪部分内容首先显示(如文本先于图形)等。这就是你为什么在浏览器中看到的网页地址都是以“http://”开头的原因。 自WWW诞生以来，一个多姿多彩的资讯和虚拟的世界便出现在我们眼前，可是我们怎么能够更加容易地找到我们需要的资讯呢？当决定使用超文本作为WWW文档的标准格式后，于是在1990年，科学家们立即制定了能够快速查找这些超文本文档的协议，即HTTP协议。经过几年的使用与发展，得到不断的完善和扩展，目前在WWW中使用的是HTTP/1.0的第六版。 HTTP协议的工作方式 由于HTTP协议是基于请求/响应范式的(相当于客户机/服务器)。一个客户机与服务器建立连接后，发送一个请求给服务器，请求方式的格式为：统一资源标识符(URL)、协议版本号，后边是MIME信息包括请求修饰符、客户机信息和可能的内容。服务器接到请求后，给予相应的响应信息，其格式为一个状态行，包括信息的协议版本号、一个成功或错误的代码，后边是MIME信息包括服务器信息、实体信息和可能的内容。 许多HTTP通讯是由一个用户代理初始化的并且包括一个申请在源服务器上资源的请求。最简单的情况可能是在用户代理和服务器之间通过一个单独的连接来完成。在Internet上， HTTP通讯通常发生在TCP/IP连接之上。缺省端口是TCP80，但其它的端口也是可用的。但这并不预示着HTTP协议在Internet或其它网络的其它协议之上才能完成。HTTP只预示着一个可靠的传输。 这个过程就好像我们打电话订货一样，我们可以打电话给商家，告诉他我们需要什么规格的商品，然后商家再告诉我们什么商品有货，什么商品缺货。这些，我们是通过电话线用电话联系(HTTP是通过TCP/IP)，当然我们也可以通过传真，只要商家那边也有传真。 HTTP协议的内部操作过程 在WWW中，“客户”与“服务器”是一个相对的概念，只存在于一个特定的连接期间，即在某个连接中的客户在另一个连接中可能作为服务器。基于HTTP协议的客户/服务器模式的信息交换过程，它分四个过程：建立连接、发送请求信息、发送响应信息、关闭连接。这就好像上面的例子，我们电话订货的全过程。 其实简单说就是任何服务器除了包括HTML文件以外，还有一个HTTP驻留程序，用于响应用户请求。你的浏览器是HTTP客户，向服务器发送请求，当浏览器中输入了一个开始文件或点击了一个超级链接时，浏览器就向服务器发送了HTTP请求，此请求被送往由IP地址指定的URL。驻留程序接收到请求，在进行必要的操作后回送所要求的文件。在这一过程中，在网络上发送和接收的数据已经被分成一个或多个数据包(packet)，每个数据包包括：要传送的数据；控制信息，即告诉网络怎样处理数据包。TCP/IP决定了每个数据包的格式。如果事先不告诉你，你可能不会知道信息被分成用于传输和再重新组合起来的许多小块。 也就是说商家除了拥有商品之外，它也有一个职员在接听你的电话，当你打电话的时候，你的声音转换成各种复杂的数据，通过电话线传输到对方的电话机，对方的电话机又把各种复杂的数据转换成声音，使得对方商家的职员能够明白你的请求。这个过程你不需要明白声音是怎么转换成复杂的数据的。 相关条目 安全电子交易安全套接层
EDI报关系统介绍 EDI报关系统又称为海关通关EDI申报系统，是为了方便有关进出口企业向海关办理进出口货物报关手续的专业报关和报关单处理系统。它采用世界流行的EDI报关方式，使外贸企业得以在自己的办公地点使用EDI网络进行远程报关处理，EDI报关是外贸业务无纸化的一个重要环节。 EDI报关系统的企业端报关软件是在Windows操作平台环境下运行的软件，操作方法与Windows其他应用软件一样，要求用户具有一定的计算机基础知识和对所用的电子数据交换通信方式有初步的了解。该系统采用了国际公认的标准报文格式，通过计算机通信网络系统进行数据交换。 EDI通关系统的基本概念 中国海关EDI通关系统是指海关与通关对象之间运用EDI技术自动交换和处理通关文件，并利用海关计算机应用系统及时、自动完成整个通关过程的EDI实用系统。EDI通关系统涉及进出口货物报关、审单、征税、放行等通关环节，以及包括报关行、金融单位、仓储、运输企业和国际贸易行政管理等部门。EDI通关系统是指海关原有报关自动化系统(H883系统)的延伸、发展和提高。它在H883系统的基础上，进一步简化了通关手续，用户在许多情况下不必派人到海关办理报关手续。EDI通关系统软件模块示意图如图9．14所示。 EDI报关系统的特点 EDI报关系统具有以下特点： 1.简便报关手续、提高通关速度：EDI报关把传统报关模式的填单、打单、预审、复审等多项业务环节整合为一个环节，仅用五分钟就可完成向海关的发送申报、接收海关批复回执等全过程。 2.报关时间不受限制：海关计算机对电子报文进行24小时自动审核、回复。 3.加强了与海关的沟通：及时获取海关公告信息，使企业尽快得到海关有关政策的变化成为现实 4.节省企业开支：EDI报关与人工申报相比，每份报关单的输入与改单费用可节约30元-110元人民币不等。海关每一报关单号收取20元人民币，改单不收费。 5.信息化管理、增值功能：ZJ-Icustoms电子通关管理系统功能强大，特有的OPENAPI增值功能，提供预留接口实现与企业ERP、SCM、CRM等系统无缝联接，提供完整的接入方案以及二次开发方案。 6.丰富的实施经验及完善的服务体系。 EDI报关系统目标 系统建设的目标主要是：海关、企业使用系统进行报关，可以使报关业务便捷化，方便企业的报关，便于海关管理，简化报关手续，加快通关速度。使报关操作更加人性化、智能化，报关信息电子化，信息化。最大限度地方便报关企业和海关。 提高通关速度 建立报关、审核、回执的自动化、电子化系统。报关企业或报关行只需要远程使用系统进行报关业务和查看回执情况，减少企业进行报关时由于报关单填制错误，而又进行修改的时间。通过网络和信息化技术缩短通关的速度，提高企业、报关行的通关效率。 加快信息传递 海关通过应用信息技术，加快了信息传递速度，使报关参数信息的变更通知下达更加迅速。通过采用安全可靠的加密技术，也可以将报关参数、企业资料、商品资料等通过网络迅速地向企业传送。信息网络，它不仅能迅速地传递信息，减少传送时间，保证信息的时效性，保证信息的全面与准确，并且可以大大降低信息的传递成本，节省大量的人力、物力和财力。 简化运作环节和程序 通过系统的实现使通关手续更加便捷。建立整合性、超时空限制的报关服务系统；根据报关企业、报关行的需求，建立信息查询，业务查询等。如企业申请、报关单申报、回执通知等业务，均予以电子化、线上服务化，提供电子查询、查看等。 降低运作成本 由于信息技术的应用，提高了企业报关人员的素质，优化了海关对报关企业的管理，提高了报关单信息传递的速度和效率，这些都会促使报关运作成本的减少。 而报关系统的硬件、网络投入都可以使用海关、企业已经建成的专线网络和原有硬件设备，这样系统的实施对于海关和企业的软硬件投入几乎为零。 提高海关管理水平 EDI报关系统能够促进海关部门改善和提高服务质量。利用EDI报关系统，改变海关提供服务的方法和方式，海关提供比以前更快捷的各种服务。 通过报关单数据的电子化，为海关管理决策提供数据的支持。便于以后海关实施计算机决策支持系统提供基础。 海关ED重与电子商务技术应用背景 海关在较短时间内使EDI与电子商务应用取得重大突破并成为国内少数几个具有实际应用效果的单位，有其必然性。 首先，从海关在国民经济中，尤其是在国际贸易活动中所处的地位看。海关作为国家对进出口贸易的监督管理部门，是连接贸易、运输、银行、保险等行业及外经贸、商检等其他国家进出口管制部门的纽带，也是对庞大经贸信息数据进行处理和传输的中枢。海关与报关行、进出口企业、运输部门、银行及国家进出口管制部门等均有着密切的联系。 海关处于庞大的数据收发端，并要对这些数据进行处理，将其作为进出口监督管理和征收关税、进出口结付汇及出口退税等的依据。如果海关效率低下或出错，造成的损失是巨大的。反之，其产生的效益也是巨大的。有资料表明，一艘装运2700个集装箱的远洋货轮，压港一天就要损失5—6万美元，这还不包括由此产生的一系列连锁损失。另一个例子说明，如果海关与央行国库及进出口纳税人之间采用电子支付系统来完成缴税手续，仅因税款提前入库一项，就可为国家每年省出在途资金利息数十亿元。 其次，从海关各项业务发展需要看。自改革开放以来，海关事业出现了建国以来最好的发展时期。对外开放及对外贸易的蓬勃发展极大地促进了海关事业的发展，同时又给海关工作带来了巨大的压力。随着我国进出口业务急剧增加，海关的业务工作量也随之飞速增加。从统计数据可以看出，进出口贸易总值中海关各项业务每年的增幅基本保持在10％-20％。但是，海关人员总数的增长十分有限，尽管海关已大大简化了通关手续，货物的实际检查率已降到了极限，货物在口岸上受阻仍时有发生，企业抱怨之声仍不绝于耳。海关已到了唯一依靠信息技术不能有效履行其管理职能的地步。 再次，从国外同行发展趋势看，EDI与电子商务技术在海关领域的应用，从世界范围来看，与其他政府部门比较，一直处于较领先地位，尤其是对国际贸易依存度较大的发达国家海关更是如此。从发达国家海关计算机应用历程看，20世纪60年代是以贸易统计计算机化为标志的单项应用阶段，20世纪70年代是以货物通关计算机化为标志的综合应用阶段，而20世纪90年代是以高度自动化的EDI无纸通关为标志的高级应用阶段。美国海关目前在其货物报关单中，已有96％是采用EDI方式处理的，其中又有45％实现了无纸通关，而自动缴税(银行电子划账)已占总数的54％。为了有效限制国外纺织晶冲击国内市场，已与新加坡、中国等有关部门联网，以EDI方式交换纺织品配额许可证发证信息。加拿大海关也在几年前制定了从传统的联网受理报关业务向EDI方式过渡的行动计划，开发了与其报关自动化处理系统(CCS)相衔接的EDI报关系统，开始接受EDI报关，EDI报关量已占83％。澳大利亚海关采用EDI模式处理进出口货物，发展至今实现“无纸通关”已达90％以上。 从国际海关组织提供的资料看，发达国家海关普遍采用了EDI技术进行海关主要业务的处理，与本国贸易界的EDI应用系统已进入常规运行阶段，其主要精力已转移到海关与其他政府行政部门间及国际海关间的EDI应用系统开发上米，且应用领域也从最初的货物通关环节扩展到诸如配额许可证管理、国际旅客管理等方面。如前面提到的美国海关与新加坡的纺织品配额许可证EDI管理，美国、澳大利亚和新西兰三国海关、航空公司间的航空旅客信息先期预报等。面对世界性的EDI应用潮流，如果不跟上EDI应用的步伐，我国海关与国际海关的差距势必进一步拉大。 最后，从国内EDI和EC技术应用环境看。进入20世纪90年代以来，从中央到地方，从政府行政部门到各行各业，对EDI与电子商务技术的应用越来越重视。不少部门和地方在“八五”和“九五”期间投入了几十亿，甚至上百亿的资金，用于信息技术的开发和应用。信息技术的广泛应用，尤其是EDI和EC在外贸领域的应用，对海关的管理提出了更高的要求。在广州、上海、深圳、厦门、青岛、天津、大连、北京等地，许多进出口商贸企业、运输公司、报关行和加工贸易企业，纷纷向海关提出了采用EDI方式办理海关手续的要求。这一呼声已从沿海口岸发展到内地口岸。与此同时，一些政府行政管理部门，包括外经贸部、国家税务总局、国家外汇管理局等，为了加强对进出口贸易的宏观调控和微观管理，也迫切希望与海关开展EDI或EC方式的行政互助。 海关的EDI和EC技术应用，就是在这种内部和外部的双重需求推动下开始的。 中国海关ED重与电子商务技术应用过程的阶段 1.前期调研阶段 中国海关从20世纪90年代初开始EDI应用的研究工作。主要是通过广泛地参加国际组织的各种研讨会和工作会议，对世界范围内的EDI应用现状和发展动态进行研究。开始是概貌了解，然后逐步深入，最后基本掌握了实施EDI应用的关键技术。比如，通过参加世界海关组织(WCO)每年一次的n工作会议，着重对美、英、澳、日等国家海关的EDI通关系统进行比较研究。20世纪90年代初，中国海关正值全力以赴地推广应用面向海关业务管理的报关自动化系统，而上述国家海关已先后进入EDI通关系统的开发和应用时期，这对我国海关是一个很大的启示，认识到海关IT应用的发展方向应是无纸化的EDI通关。 2.研制开发阶段 1992年9月海关总署办公会议做出决定，批准EDI通关系统工程正式立项，为此成立了由署领导亲自挂帅的EDI工程领导小组，并从全国海关抽调了30余名计算机与海关业务专家组成了工程组。工程组于1993年3月完成EDI通关系统所需的14个EDIFACT标准报文子集的制定工作；7月完成系统总体技术方案设计：9月开始至1994年1月，只用5个多月的时间完成了用于普通货物通关的软件设计。随后于1994年11月完成了用于快递货物通关的软件设计。1995年1月完成了基于微机平台的普通货物通关软件设计。EDI通关系统按运行平台分，有基于ALPHA服务器和INTEL服务器两种；按适用范围分，有适用于普通货物(海陆空运)和快递货物(空运)两种；从EDI应用深度看，有仅限于货物进出口申报业务的，也有用于货物进出口申报、审单、放行业务的。 3.试点应用阶段 在海关总署的统一部署下，EDI通关系统的试点应用工作，于1994年4月首先在北京首都机场海关进行，9月起在上海浦东外高桥保税区海关进行。起初仅用于普通货物进出口的通关。随着快递货物EDI通关系统的开发成功，1994年年底和1995年年初又将该系统分别投入到上海虹桥机场海关和北京首都机场海关使用。 4.推广应用阶段 EDI通关系统在两个海关试点成功后，海关总署开始有计划地进行推广。到1997年年底，已开通EDI通关业务的有北京、上海、广州、深圳、珠海、杭州、宁波、青岛、大连、厦门、福州、郑州等口岸的十余个海关。EDI通关企业已近500家，系统处理的普通货物进出口日报关单量约占全国总数的20％；系统处理的空运快递货物进出口占全国总数的80％以上。 5.向电子商务发展阶段 在许可证、进出口结付汇、出口退税报关单核销方面，海关总署于1998年8月组织开发了进出口报关单联网核查系统。该系统利用中国电信公共数据网，采用WWW服务器技术，具有身份验证，数字签名，数据密押，传输加密以及跟踪审计等一整套安全保密措施。系统已于当年9月开始逐步推广使用。首期投入应用的是国家外汇管理部门和银行对企业进出口结付汇报关单的核查业务。系统用户包括国家外汇管理局及各地方分支局、国内所有经营外汇售收业务的银行单位以及进出口企业。开通国家税务局对企业出口退税的报关单核查、外经贸许可证管理部门对企业进出口许可证报关单核查等业务。该系统是国内第一个在全国范围内推广应用并取得实际应用效果的电子商务应用系统。
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